Werkstuk: Athletics
Athletics
Track and Field:
Track and field is called the Mother of all Sports. It has its origin in the period of the old Greek. Well known is the story of the young Greek soldier Pheidippides, whom, in the year 490 BC, ran with a full marching kit from the city of Marathon to the city of Athens. He did this to tell the people that the Greek had defeated the Persians. He ran into the city, stammered with his last breath: "we have won", collapsed and died. The distance between Marathon and Athens was approximately 42 kilometres. Thanks to this soldier the marathon is a part of track and field and is run several times a year in a lot of different cities. A well-known marathon is the one of New York. Track and field is more a general term for several sports as: "sprinting, middle-distance running, marathon, cross, race-walking, hurdles, shot put, hammer throw, javelin, discus throw, high jump, pole-vault, long jump, triple jump, steeple chase, relay and pentathlon. The purpose of track and field is to reach the ultimate achievement in the field of running, throwing and jumping. To reach this ultimate achievement you first have to train and learn techniques. It is possible to do this as an individual or together with a group of people. Very important in all these sports are the right techniques, the right clothes, the right shoes, the right underground, the right weather, the best trainer and the will to win. If all these things are excellent, you can put down a very good result, maybe even a world record. Track and field is not only done by professionals, but also by people who in their spare time want to work on their condition and even by people who just do it for fun. Many of these people you can see jogging in the streets and in the parks. Others join athletic clubs and by training together with others under a professional trainer they can improve their condition and reach their goal. Every athlete finds it a great honour to represent his/her country in the Olympic Games.
The Olympic Games:
The Greeks were the first to organise the Olympic Games in 776 BC. All the games took place on the temple ground, a small area in Olympia, on the peninsula Peloponnesus. For about one thousand years long every four years the Greeks went to this place to compete with each other. The Games were mainly held to honour their Gods. All Games were forbidden for women. They were not even allowed to sit on the tribunes. If they disobey this rule, they would be sentenced to death. One mother wanted to see her son compete and she went to the Games dressed as a man. She was caught and killed. Some parts of track and field are almost still the same today as in the beginning for instance running, only the distances 192m, 385m and 4600 m changed, discus throwing, a discus for a man today weighs 2 kg instead of 6 kg, javelin throwing, long jump and high jump. The old Greeks had no interest in how fast or how far an athlete would run, jump or throw, only winning was important. Nowadays it is different, the distance and the winning time is very important, for everybody want to be faster or better than the others are and everybody want to have an Olympic Record. By winning an Olympic Record you'll become famous and you'll be invited to almost every big athletic event and you can ask a lot of money for your appearance. The Olympic Games stopped being held in the 4th century AD, because Christianity conquered Greece and since 330 Christianity was state religion. The Christians were against all old heathen Gods and forbid sport. In 394 the emperor Theodorius officially put a ban on the Games. In 1502 the Olympic Games were rehabilitated, but it lasted until 1896 before the first modern Olympic Games were held in Greece. A young French baron Pierre de Coubertin was crazy about sport and when the German archaeologist Ernst Curtius published a series of reports in 1870 about the excavation of the old Greek Olympia, his interest rouse quickly. Coubertin, at that time knew for sure that he would be the one to reintroduce the Olympic Games. This appeared to be a very difficult task. It caused him his marriage, a lot of his energy and even more of his money. Finally he succeeded and the first "New Games" were held in Athens as an honour to the old Greeks. A very wise saying of Coubertin was "winning is not important, competing is". Today this is still the thought behind the Olympic Games, although the competitors, the participating countries, the sponsors and the organisation think otherwise. Fame, money, Olympic records, drugs etc. is indissoluble connected with the Olympic Games. To show how enormously the results have developed, the list mentioned below gives some idea.
Pole-vault
1896 3,30 meter
1992 5,80 meter
Long jump
1896 6,35 meter
1992 8,67 meter
1500 meters running
1896 4.33.20
1992 3.40.12
Discus throw:
The discus: The discus is made of wood or any other proper material. It has a round edge of metal. The discus is flat and notches and/or parts ditching out of the discus are not allowed. Both sides of the discus are identical.
Weight and measurement: The minimal weight of the discus for men is 2 kilograms where as the allowed measurement is about 20 centimetres. The minimal weight for women is one kilogram where as the allowed measurement is 18 centimetres.
In general: In the early days if a soldier had to cross over a river, first he threw his shield to the other side before he himself crossed over. It was very stupid if your shield landed in the water. Soldiers, who didn't want to be laughed at, exercised shield throwing on land. Later on shield throwing became the to us well known discus throw. Because discus throw is a very dangerous sport for the spectators, the athlete has to take place on a marked off circle in a cage before he/she is allowed to throw the discus. Before throwing the athlete holds the discus against the palm of his hand and against the forearm of the throwing arm. He puts his fingertips around the edge of the discus and then the athlete whirls around rapidly and propels the discus outward with a whipping motion of the arm. The discus then gets extra speed while throwing. All competitors get two free throws, which are throws that don't count, to practise. The athlete is not allowed to wear gloves and they are also not allowed to tape their fingers. Their shoes and the circle that they stand in are not to be smeared with any sustantion. The throw is valid if the discus stays within the two straight lines extended from the centre of the circle at a 90 degrees angle. The throw is also valid if the discus first hits the cage and then lands in the landing area. Only if the discus hits the ground, the athlete is supposed to leave the circle in a correct way behind the middle line (centre line?). If the throw is valid it will be measured. The measurements are rounded off downwards on whole centimetres. In 1986 the German athlete Jürgen Schult threw a world record of 74.08.
Javelin throwing:
The javelin: The javelin consists of a metal shaft with a metal point at one of the ends. At the centre of gravity the javelin has a whipcord grip of about 15 centimetres long. This whipcord grip may not expand the diameter of the stick with more than 8 millimetres. The shaft is smooth and even, where as the diameter of the shaft, 30 mm for men and 25 mm for women is to be found right before the hilt. The stick must gradually narrow as well to the front as to the back.
Weight and length: The minimum weight of the javelin for men is 800 grams and for women this is 600 grams. The length of the female javelin may not be more than 2,3 meters where as the minimum length must be 2,2 meters. For men there is a different max and min length, namely max length of 2,7 meters where as the min length is 2,6 meters.
In general: Hercules has a reputation to have been one of the earliest javelin throwers. The first time the javelin was introduced in a game was in the Games of 708 BC. At that time there were two forms: 1. Throwing at a target and 2. Distance throwing using a sling.
The first javelin was made of olivewood and measured between 2.30m and 2.40m. It had a weight of 400 grams. In 1780 the Fins adopted the javelin and it became a symbol of national independence. At that time the javelin measured 2.60m and weighed 800 grams (the standard norm nowadays). The javelin was made of hickory wood. In 1953 an American named Franklin "Bud" Held invented a hollow javelin, which increased its flight capability and causing the javelin to land horizontally. In 1954 Held developed a metal variant and due to all these developments the 100m barrier was broken in 1966 by Felix Erausquin and this barrier was broken again in 1984, but this time by Uwe Hohn. The IAAF then established new rules to ensure shorter flight times and point first landing. No rough or corrugated tail design is allowed. The athlete has to hold the javelin at the grip with one hand and throw it over the shoulder or the upper arm. The athlete is not allowed to wear gloves. These rules are to make javelin throw saver for the audience and the people on the track field.
Shot put:
Outdoor: The shot is made of metal which must not be softer than copper. Sometimes the shot is filled with lead or other material and enveloped with a harder kind of material. The shot must be smooth, irregularities in the surface are not allowed.
Indoor: The same shot as outdoors, but shots of plastic or shots with a rubber envelope are also allowed.
Weight: The shot for men should at least weigh 7,26 kilograms and has a diameter of min 110 millimetres and max 130 millimetres. This is different from women where as the shot should at least weighs 4 kilograms and has a diameter of min 95 millimetres and max 110 millimetres.
In general: In the XVII century English soldiers organised cannonball throwing competitions and in 1860 the rules of the competition were established for the first time. The aim in shot putting is to propel a solid metal ball through the air for maximum distance. The athlete holds the shot in the fingers of the throwing hand, resting this hand against the shoulder with the shot under the chin. Before he stretches his arm in one quick move and pushes the shot into the air towards the landingground, he moves across the circle in a half crouch in order to gain speed. There may not be made marks into the ground. Gloves may not be worn and fingers may not be taped, but athletes are allowed to smudge a sticky substance onto their hands in order to get a better grip on the shot. The shoes may not be smeared. Once athletes start with their throw, they may not touch the ground outside the circle. The upperside of the circleborder and the upperside of the shotborder may also not be touched. If it, despite of all does happen, the throw is disallowed. Even when the shot is released at the wrong moment, it is counted as a try. If the athlete wants the throw to be disallowed he or she may leave the circle before the shot reaches the ground. A valid throw is when a shot lands within the lines of the field which make an angle of 40 degrees and the athlete hasn't stepped out of the circle before the put has reached the ground. The measurements are rounded off downwards on whole centimetres. In 1951 Parry O'Brien (USA) refined a new technique and this made him the first man to break the 18m barrier. He faced the back of the circle from the start position in a somewhat bend over position and slowly turned around 180 degrees, bringing his body to a normal standing position than stretched his arm and threw the shot. Most athletes are still using this technique. In 1965 the American Randy Matson threw with 21.54 m a New World Record. People thought then, that this would never be beaten, but not long after Matson's record a Russian Alexander Barychnikov threw, with the rotation technique similar to that used by discus throwers, beyond the magical limit of 22 meters. In 1990 the American Randy Barnes threw the shot to 23.12 meters.
Long Jump:
In ancient times it was necessary for human beings to run and jump away from danger. Sometimes they had to jump over a ditch to flee from danger. Nowadays we don't have to do that any more; we take our motorcycle, car or bike and drive or ride away from danger. In the Games of 708 BC long jump was part of the pentathlon. At that time the jumper had small weights in each hand which gave greater impetus. In the games of 1860 hand weights were not used anymore. Compared to other athletic sports, there is little improvement in developing the technique of long jump. Between 1922 and 1927 William De Hart Hubbard (USA) and Robert Legendre (USA) developed a new kind of jump, the "hitch kick", a running motion of the legs in mid-air. Variations of this and the more simple "hang" technique are still used today. The distance of the jump depends on how much speed you have while running, the angle of your body and the height you reach. Sprinters are usually good long jumpers (Carl Lewis). After the running period the athlete takes off of a white take-off board made of wood that is firmly attached to the ground. The take-off board is 1.2 m long and 0.20 cm wide. Behind the take-off board a plasticine layer makes imprints of the foot visible if there had been a footfault. The athlete lands in a sandpit. In 1991 Mike Powell (USA) jumped 8.95 meters.
Running:
The measurements of outdoor tracks, according to the rules for international games at adults level, has to be 400 meters long and 7,32 meters wide with 6 runningtracks of each min 1,22 meters and max 1,25 meters wide. The track must be flat and may not overstep a maximum sideward slope of 1.100, but it may not overstep the general downward slop in the running direction of 1.1000. Indoor tracks are shorter, because there is less space and they are allowed to have gradient curves.
Track events exist of a series numbers among which are sprinting, long distance, steeplechase, race walking, relay and hurdle racing. With all the races up to 400 meters a runner may use a starting block in order to have a better take off. The start block has to be fastened to the ground of the track with pens or nails, because then the track is minimal damaged and the block is quick to remove. At international tracks a false start detector, which gives a hearable signal to the starter when the athlete has reaction of less than 100/1000e of a second at the start, is attached to the block. The start is white line of 5 centimetres wide, which has been set on a straight angle with the inside of the track. The starter fires a shot, hearable for all athletes, after he or/she is sure that all athletes have taken the right startposition. The athletes may not have more than ten spikes a shoe. The most spectacular race in the athletics is the 100 sprint. The race asks for the extremes of the athletes in the fields of power, reaction power and speed. The only thing of which I think that it is a shame is that athletes more often use drugs in order to set a better result.
Doping in track and field:
Years ago the sport world was shocked by the sudden death of a racing cyclist, during a race in the mountains. Later on it appeared that the cause of death was the use of anabolic steroids, so that he could put down a better result. You should think that all athletes would be very startled by this and that they would never use drugs to achieve better results. Nothing of this is true. Drugs are being used more and more and today there are several sorts of drugs that a athlete can chose of. In 1968 anabolic steroids were forbidden and the drugs law was introduced. In 1970 the British Commonwealth Games followed this example. The IAAF took action and introduced a list of forbidden drugs and further more entered into a contract with some doping laboratories, to check urine samples and blood monsters of athletes. Well-known drugs are the anabolic steroid, a synthetic drug that makes your muscles grow, but also has a lot of terrible side-effects like for instance acne, hair loss, greasy skin, a heavier voice, abnormal hair-grow on the whole body and face, mankind by women, breast development by men, less production of sperm, liver and heart diseases and changes in personality. The best known athlete who was caught red-handed using dope was the 100-meter sprinter Ben Johnson from Canada. Today Nandrolon is used by a lot of athletes. The IAAF caught some athletes under which Marlene Ottey, Linford Christie and the Dutch Troy Douglas on using Nandrolon and they suspended them for two years. The IAAF draw up a limit of 2,0 nanograms of Nandrolon in a urine sample, but according to Prof. dr. Jos Thyssen, a clinical chemist who works for the UMC there is a lack of knowledge of the effects of Nandrolon on the body to punish the athletes so severe. He thinks it is better to give the athletes severe warning and he advises good research of the role of Nandrolon, because Nandrolon is also a framestructure of the body. In the week from February 14 to 18 2000 the IAAF took a decision to start a good research on some food supplements as a possible cause of so many positive urine samples. Unfortunately the decision was taken after the suspension of early mentioned athletes, so that their suspension will (run for the next two years remain in force)
Bibliography
1. De geïllustreerde Sportencyclopedie (Readers Digest)
2. Gezond in vorm (Readers Digest)
3. Zo Zit Dat , december 1995, july 1996, february 1997 and april 1999
4. Utrechts Nieuwsblad , 19 february 2000; article: 'Eerst heel goed onderzoeken, dan pas
oordelen'
5. Internet:
http://www.iaaf.org/Trainingtips/sport/intro.html
http://www.larch.nl/hermes/atletiek.htm
6. Encarta
7. Microsoft Word 97
Track and Field:
Track and field is called the Mother of all Sports. It has its origin in the period of the old Greek. Well known is the story of the young Greek soldier Pheidippides, whom, in the year 490 BC, ran with a full marching kit from the city of Marathon to the city of Athens. He did this to tell the people that the Greek had defeated the Persians. He ran into the city, stammered with his last breath: "we have won", collapsed and died. The distance between Marathon and Athens was approximately 42 kilometres. Thanks to this soldier the marathon is a part of track and field and is run several times a year in a lot of different cities. A well-known marathon is the one of New York. Track and field is more a general term for several sports as: "sprinting, middle-distance running, marathon, cross, race-walking, hurdles, shot put, hammer throw, javelin, discus throw, high jump, pole-vault, long jump, triple jump, steeple chase, relay and pentathlon. The purpose of track and field is to reach the ultimate achievement in the field of running, throwing and jumping. To reach this ultimate achievement you first have to train and learn techniques. It is possible to do this as an individual or together with a group of people. Very important in all these sports are the right techniques, the right clothes, the right shoes, the right underground, the right weather, the best trainer and the will to win. If all these things are excellent, you can put down a very good result, maybe even a world record. Track and field is not only done by professionals, but also by people who in their spare time want to work on their condition and even by people who just do it for fun. Many of these people you can see jogging in the streets and in the parks. Others join athletic clubs and by training together with others under a professional trainer they can improve their condition and reach their goal. Every athlete finds it a great honour to represent his/her country in the Olympic Games.
The Olympic Games:
The Greeks were the first to organise the Olympic Games in 776 BC. All the games took place on the temple ground, a small area in Olympia, on the peninsula Peloponnesus. For about one thousand years long every four years the Greeks went to this place to compete with each other. The Games were mainly held to honour their Gods. All Games were forbidden for women. They were not even allowed to sit on the tribunes. If they disobey this rule, they would be sentenced to death. One mother wanted to see her son compete and she went to the Games dressed as a man. She was caught and killed. Some parts of track and field are almost still the same today as in the beginning for instance running, only the distances 192m, 385m and 4600 m changed, discus throwing, a discus for a man today weighs 2 kg instead of 6 kg, javelin throwing, long jump and high jump. The old Greeks had no interest in how fast or how far an athlete would run, jump or throw, only winning was important. Nowadays it is different, the distance and the winning time is very important, for everybody want to be faster or better than the others are and everybody want to have an Olympic Record. By winning an Olympic Record you'll become famous and you'll be invited to almost every big athletic event and you can ask a lot of money for your appearance. The Olympic Games stopped being held in the 4th century AD, because Christianity conquered Greece and since 330 Christianity was state religion. The Christians were against all old heathen Gods and forbid sport. In 394 the emperor Theodorius officially put a ban on the Games. In 1502 the Olympic Games were rehabilitated, but it lasted until 1896 before the first modern Olympic Games were held in Greece. A young French baron Pierre de Coubertin was crazy about sport and when the German archaeologist Ernst Curtius published a series of reports in 1870 about the excavation of the old Greek Olympia, his interest rouse quickly. Coubertin, at that time knew for sure that he would be the one to reintroduce the Olympic Games. This appeared to be a very difficult task. It caused him his marriage, a lot of his energy and even more of his money. Finally he succeeded and the first "New Games" were held in Athens as an honour to the old Greeks. A very wise saying of Coubertin was "winning is not important, competing is". Today this is still the thought behind the Olympic Games, although the competitors, the participating countries, the sponsors and the organisation think otherwise. Fame, money, Olympic records, drugs etc. is indissoluble connected with the Olympic Games. To show how enormously the results have developed, the list mentioned below gives some idea.
Pole-vault
1896 3,30 meter
1992 5,80 meter
Long jump
1896 6,35 meter
1992 8,67 meter
1500 meters running
1896 4.33.20
1992 3.40.12
Discus throw:
The discus: The discus is made of wood or any other proper material. It has a round edge of metal. The discus is flat and notches and/or parts ditching out of the discus are not allowed. Both sides of the discus are identical.
Weight and measurement: The minimal weight of the discus for men is 2 kilograms where as the allowed measurement is about 20 centimetres. The minimal weight for women is one kilogram where as the allowed measurement is 18 centimetres.
In general: In the early days if a soldier had to cross over a river, first he threw his shield to the other side before he himself crossed over. It was very stupid if your shield landed in the water. Soldiers, who didn't want to be laughed at, exercised shield throwing on land. Later on shield throwing became the to us well known discus throw. Because discus throw is a very dangerous sport for the spectators, the athlete has to take place on a marked off circle in a cage before he/she is allowed to throw the discus. Before throwing the athlete holds the discus against the palm of his hand and against the forearm of the throwing arm. He puts his fingertips around the edge of the discus and then the athlete whirls around rapidly and propels the discus outward with a whipping motion of the arm. The discus then gets extra speed while throwing. All competitors get two free throws, which are throws that don't count, to practise. The athlete is not allowed to wear gloves and they are also not allowed to tape their fingers. Their shoes and the circle that they stand in are not to be smeared with any sustantion. The throw is valid if the discus stays within the two straight lines extended from the centre of the circle at a 90 degrees angle. The throw is also valid if the discus first hits the cage and then lands in the landing area. Only if the discus hits the ground, the athlete is supposed to leave the circle in a correct way behind the middle line (centre line?). If the throw is valid it will be measured. The measurements are rounded off downwards on whole centimetres. In 1986 the German athlete Jürgen Schult threw a world record of 74.08.
Javelin throwing:
The javelin: The javelin consists of a metal shaft with a metal point at one of the ends. At the centre of gravity the javelin has a whipcord grip of about 15 centimetres long. This whipcord grip may not expand the diameter of the stick with more than 8 millimetres. The shaft is smooth and even, where as the diameter of the shaft, 30 mm for men and 25 mm for women is to be found right before the hilt. The stick must gradually narrow as well to the front as to the back.
Weight and length: The minimum weight of the javelin for men is 800 grams and for women this is 600 grams. The length of the female javelin may not be more than 2,3 meters where as the minimum length must be 2,2 meters. For men there is a different max and min length, namely max length of 2,7 meters where as the min length is 2,6 meters.
In general: Hercules has a reputation to have been one of the earliest javelin throwers. The first time the javelin was introduced in a game was in the Games of 708 BC. At that time there were two forms: 1. Throwing at a target and 2. Distance throwing using a sling.
The first javelin was made of olivewood and measured between 2.30m and 2.40m. It had a weight of 400 grams. In 1780 the Fins adopted the javelin and it became a symbol of national independence. At that time the javelin measured 2.60m and weighed 800 grams (the standard norm nowadays). The javelin was made of hickory wood. In 1953 an American named Franklin "Bud" Held invented a hollow javelin, which increased its flight capability and causing the javelin to land horizontally. In 1954 Held developed a metal variant and due to all these developments the 100m barrier was broken in 1966 by Felix Erausquin and this barrier was broken again in 1984, but this time by Uwe Hohn. The IAAF then established new rules to ensure shorter flight times and point first landing. No rough or corrugated tail design is allowed. The athlete has to hold the javelin at the grip with one hand and throw it over the shoulder or the upper arm. The athlete is not allowed to wear gloves. These rules are to make javelin throw saver for the audience and the people on the track field.
Shot put:
Outdoor: The shot is made of metal which must not be softer than copper. Sometimes the shot is filled with lead or other material and enveloped with a harder kind of material. The shot must be smooth, irregularities in the surface are not allowed.
Indoor: The same shot as outdoors, but shots of plastic or shots with a rubber envelope are also allowed.
Weight: The shot for men should at least weigh 7,26 kilograms and has a diameter of min 110 millimetres and max 130 millimetres. This is different from women where as the shot should at least weighs 4 kilograms and has a diameter of min 95 millimetres and max 110 millimetres.
In general: In the XVII century English soldiers organised cannonball throwing competitions and in 1860 the rules of the competition were established for the first time. The aim in shot putting is to propel a solid metal ball through the air for maximum distance. The athlete holds the shot in the fingers of the throwing hand, resting this hand against the shoulder with the shot under the chin. Before he stretches his arm in one quick move and pushes the shot into the air towards the landingground, he moves across the circle in a half crouch in order to gain speed. There may not be made marks into the ground. Gloves may not be worn and fingers may not be taped, but athletes are allowed to smudge a sticky substance onto their hands in order to get a better grip on the shot. The shoes may not be smeared. Once athletes start with their throw, they may not touch the ground outside the circle. The upperside of the circleborder and the upperside of the shotborder may also not be touched. If it, despite of all does happen, the throw is disallowed. Even when the shot is released at the wrong moment, it is counted as a try. If the athlete wants the throw to be disallowed he or she may leave the circle before the shot reaches the ground. A valid throw is when a shot lands within the lines of the field which make an angle of 40 degrees and the athlete hasn't stepped out of the circle before the put has reached the ground. The measurements are rounded off downwards on whole centimetres. In 1951 Parry O'Brien (USA) refined a new technique and this made him the first man to break the 18m barrier. He faced the back of the circle from the start position in a somewhat bend over position and slowly turned around 180 degrees, bringing his body to a normal standing position than stretched his arm and threw the shot. Most athletes are still using this technique. In 1965 the American Randy Matson threw with 21.54 m a New World Record. People thought then, that this would never be beaten, but not long after Matson's record a Russian Alexander Barychnikov threw, with the rotation technique similar to that used by discus throwers, beyond the magical limit of 22 meters. In 1990 the American Randy Barnes threw the shot to 23.12 meters.
Long Jump:
In ancient times it was necessary for human beings to run and jump away from danger. Sometimes they had to jump over a ditch to flee from danger. Nowadays we don't have to do that any more; we take our motorcycle, car or bike and drive or ride away from danger. In the Games of 708 BC long jump was part of the pentathlon. At that time the jumper had small weights in each hand which gave greater impetus. In the games of 1860 hand weights were not used anymore. Compared to other athletic sports, there is little improvement in developing the technique of long jump. Between 1922 and 1927 William De Hart Hubbard (USA) and Robert Legendre (USA) developed a new kind of jump, the "hitch kick", a running motion of the legs in mid-air. Variations of this and the more simple "hang" technique are still used today. The distance of the jump depends on how much speed you have while running, the angle of your body and the height you reach. Sprinters are usually good long jumpers (Carl Lewis). After the running period the athlete takes off of a white take-off board made of wood that is firmly attached to the ground. The take-off board is 1.2 m long and 0.20 cm wide. Behind the take-off board a plasticine layer makes imprints of the foot visible if there had been a footfault. The athlete lands in a sandpit. In 1991 Mike Powell (USA) jumped 8.95 meters.
Running:
The measurements of outdoor tracks, according to the rules for international games at adults level, has to be 400 meters long and 7,32 meters wide with 6 runningtracks of each min 1,22 meters and max 1,25 meters wide. The track must be flat and may not overstep a maximum sideward slope of 1.100, but it may not overstep the general downward slop in the running direction of 1.1000. Indoor tracks are shorter, because there is less space and they are allowed to have gradient curves.
Track events exist of a series numbers among which are sprinting, long distance, steeplechase, race walking, relay and hurdle racing. With all the races up to 400 meters a runner may use a starting block in order to have a better take off. The start block has to be fastened to the ground of the track with pens or nails, because then the track is minimal damaged and the block is quick to remove. At international tracks a false start detector, which gives a hearable signal to the starter when the athlete has reaction of less than 100/1000e of a second at the start, is attached to the block. The start is white line of 5 centimetres wide, which has been set on a straight angle with the inside of the track. The starter fires a shot, hearable for all athletes, after he or/she is sure that all athletes have taken the right startposition. The athletes may not have more than ten spikes a shoe. The most spectacular race in the athletics is the 100 sprint. The race asks for the extremes of the athletes in the fields of power, reaction power and speed. The only thing of which I think that it is a shame is that athletes more often use drugs in order to set a better result.
Doping in track and field:
Years ago the sport world was shocked by the sudden death of a racing cyclist, during a race in the mountains. Later on it appeared that the cause of death was the use of anabolic steroids, so that he could put down a better result. You should think that all athletes would be very startled by this and that they would never use drugs to achieve better results. Nothing of this is true. Drugs are being used more and more and today there are several sorts of drugs that a athlete can chose of. In 1968 anabolic steroids were forbidden and the drugs law was introduced. In 1970 the British Commonwealth Games followed this example. The IAAF took action and introduced a list of forbidden drugs and further more entered into a contract with some doping laboratories, to check urine samples and blood monsters of athletes. Well-known drugs are the anabolic steroid, a synthetic drug that makes your muscles grow, but also has a lot of terrible side-effects like for instance acne, hair loss, greasy skin, a heavier voice, abnormal hair-grow on the whole body and face, mankind by women, breast development by men, less production of sperm, liver and heart diseases and changes in personality. The best known athlete who was caught red-handed using dope was the 100-meter sprinter Ben Johnson from Canada. Today Nandrolon is used by a lot of athletes. The IAAF caught some athletes under which Marlene Ottey, Linford Christie and the Dutch Troy Douglas on using Nandrolon and they suspended them for two years. The IAAF draw up a limit of 2,0 nanograms of Nandrolon in a urine sample, but according to Prof. dr. Jos Thyssen, a clinical chemist who works for the UMC there is a lack of knowledge of the effects of Nandrolon on the body to punish the athletes so severe. He thinks it is better to give the athletes severe warning and he advises good research of the role of Nandrolon, because Nandrolon is also a framestructure of the body. In the week from February 14 to 18 2000 the IAAF took a decision to start a good research on some food supplements as a possible cause of so many positive urine samples. Unfortunately the decision was taken after the suspension of early mentioned athletes, so that their suspension will (run for the next two years remain in force)
Bibliography
1. De geïllustreerde Sportencyclopedie (Readers Digest)
2. Gezond in vorm (Readers Digest)
3. Zo Zit Dat , december 1995, july 1996, february 1997 and april 1999
4. Utrechts Nieuwsblad , 19 february 2000; article: 'Eerst heel goed onderzoeken, dan pas
oordelen'
5. Internet:
http://www.iaaf.org/Trainingtips/sport/intro.html
http://www.larch.nl/hermes/atletiek.htm
6. Encarta
7. Microsoft Word 97